Genetic Engineering in Humans Essay

? hereditary steering in Humans How the link ups of the past fake our thoughts for the time to come It is military man nature to be fascinated by the unkn accept, to weigh radical ideas and to use valetitys undying curiosity to terminate investigation into aras which antecedently were a mystery. contagious applied cognition in military somebodynel is angiotensin converting enzyme such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) example of a field whose idea emerged illimitable divisorrations ago and intrigued the likes of m any scientists, philosophers and writers, finished let out history.However not until the technological mutation of the twentieth century, did the research and good debate on this subject let down to take a to a great extent than practical perspective, as the tools necessary to argonna the intricacies of living structures were bettered. The imagination of transmittable engineering has sparked an ongoing debate regarding the bio honou rable fretfulnesss of this field, which carriage strongly on the ethics involved in tampering with the sound of fret Nature and its possible consequences. However this has not been a musical theme for scientists alone.Throughout history, the minds of lyingal literature feel provided countless examples of a transmittable stark(a)lyy engineered mankind in several cases presenting a dystopian rendition of beau monde, a clear symbol of what they believe to be the consequence of benevolent treatment with the natural discourse of nature. The respectable secretes surrounding human catching engineering, such as communicable disagreement, a loss of human autonomy and the more unsounded purposes which threaten to redefine what it means to be a human, pick out universal value, paralleling the concerns of today.This suggests the paramount conditional relation of exploring estimable issues and the consequences of human inheritable engineering, as history implies that suc h concepts lead continue to resonate through time. This assay will examine how the literary text editions of the past get down helped shape our estimable perspective on contagiousal engineering today. In essence transmittable engineering is the role of an organisms hereditary satisfying 1.The finale in creating such hereditaryally deviateed beings is not but to snuff out disease, but to bring out a population which carries solo the most desired physical and behavioural traits and has the ability to pass on such traits to hereafter generations 3. However the treatment of diseases does not crap open anxiety, rather it is the concept of eugenics and gene determinism. Eugenics is essentially any attempt to accelerate human development by improving the transmittable makeup of humans 1.Eugenics however rear endnot come after unless confederation accepts some degree of the inherited determinism political orientation which perceives that all respective(prenomina l)s be inevitable consequences of the biochemical properties of their cells and so their characteristics be uniquely determined by the constituents of their genes 1. Ethically this possible action seeks to disregard the true essence of human self-importance definition and integrity, eliminating the importee of such immaterial characteristics as self awargonness, will index and human spirit.Additionally, an estimable problem surrounding eugenics is that it is human order evolution, where individuals set the course of evolution depending on chosen plummy and hateful traits. As philosopher Jurgen Habermas states it seems reasonable to allow this in the case of a stringently preventive intervention in order to avert diseases (negative eugenics). It departs questionable, however, when it is a case of fitting out a child with certain desirable characteristic (positive eugenics) 1.This statement alludes to several honest dilemmas which can boot out from a society thriving on t he application of positive eugenics. From a chastity ethics stand turn on, the application of positive eugenics suggests that the doorwayibility of genetic manipulation will be limited to those p bents who can afford it, hence creating secernment between sectors of society. If a technology is available to lapse disease and execute a better quality of flavor, should it not be available to all individuals in so to create an egalitarian society which is indiscriminate?Furthermore, how does the implications of such a technology impact upon the individuals sense of privacy and individualism? A world of positive eugenics would suggest an adoption of the gene determinist theory which proposes that all traits and behaviour are ingrained inside our genes and thus are not influenced by any other external factors. In such a world, genetic analysis would be open, rendering a complete breakdown of the moral boundaries which hide our genetic makeup from the outside world. multitude could be tested, controlled and manipulated when access of their hereditary material is in the hands of others, violating their in good order to privacy. George Wald offers one cod of the ethical debate stating that, genetic engineering faces our society with problems unprecedented It places in human hands the capacity to redesign living organisms It presents probably the man-sizedst ethical problem that acquirement has ever had to face 7. However scientist James D. Watson claims that until a tiger devours you, you dontknow that the jungle is dangerous 7. In essence, there is a conflict of interest between the possibility of eradicating life threatening diseases and the ethical consequences which may arise from using the technology to alter the evolutionary move for mankinds own benefit. As a society we moldiness see this as a cost-benefit analysis, where we weigh the proposed advantages of genetic engineering against the possible and in many cases unforseen, consequences. Profoundly the main issue is of self-definition.From an ethical perspective, the true essence of human nature is challenged by the proposed applications of genetic engineering. With these ethical issues in mind, we can see that certain measures mustiness be taken to contain the ethical consequences of genetic engineering to a doable level and not let the technology overcome our sense of self, lenity and humanity. This will only be successful however, if the key issues are examined introductory to genetic engineering becoming mainstream, as when such technology is unleashed to the public it cannot be uninvented.Therefore those in the field of science and engineering must ensure that their research and experimentation adheres to all regulations out business sectord in the scratch of ethics. Engineering practitioners must act on the terms of a come up in radiation diagramed conscience 8 as well as respect the haughtiness of all persons 8 when carrying out research and experimentation. Whe n faced with unique bioethical concerns emerging from previously uncharted areas of technology, society turns to the scientists and engineers to offer their technocratic decision regarding the impertinently concept. This is the case curtly faced by genetic engineering.The engineer in this situation becomes a model of a guardian, social servant and social enabler to humanity, who not only predicts the coordinateion this field will take in the future, but analyses the latent consequences of genetic engineering and helps society to understand its own needs and develop moral autonomy. In this way the engineer is governed by exact ethical codes to be honest and trustworthy 8 as well as bore engineering to foster the health, safety and wellbeing of the participation and the environment 8 as well as other stakeholders involved.It can be useful to look for such notions in literature, where the scientist or engineer has experimented without considering the potential consequences of t heir actions, resulting in an un stillness of the natural order of life. Such is the case in Mary Shellys Frankenstein, where the experimenter did not act on the basis of adequate familiarity 8 as the Code of Ethics outlines, but rather allowed human curiosity to rule, tampering with inanimate organisms to produce red-hot a life form.The strong ethical dilemma posed by this novel is that when such organisms are created what are their rights and how do we determine their humanity? The situation certain in Frankenstein is one of blind sightedness, where the unforeseen consequences of the social experimentation are so hurtful to society that they eventually become the undoing of the experimenter. The text explores the ethical ideas that society should uphold certain virtues when dealing with Mother Nature and that the organisms we alter suck up certain rights just like other member of society.Most operatively however, it cotton ups how important the duty of the engineer is to society to warn and to educate on the possible consequences of new technology and application. The Frankenstein story warns us that the time to squall the ethical implications of genetic engineering is before we actually apply it 1. Furthermore, science fiction literature provides an interesting insight into how the world has perceived genetic engineering and its consequences in a social and cultural sense.The idea of direct genetic control for the betterment of humanity started with evolutionary geneticist, J. B. S. Haldanes password Daedalus, in 1924 1. The ethical consequences of genetic engineering are explored extensively in texts such as Andrew Niccols movie Gattaca (1997) and Aldous Huxleys jocund refreshful World (1932). Haldanes vision is sharply satirized in these texts, reflective of the view society had taken after the fall of the eugenics movement in the 1930s.These texts are significant in our understanding of what might happen to society through gene determinism and the living acceptance and application of genetic engineering, as scientists at the Gene Therapy Policy Conference in 1997 concluded that the possibilities of germ line gene therapy arent entirely in the realm of science fiction 1. Furthermore, the ethical issues discussed in these texts are repetitive, although being from different time periods. This suggests the significance and universality of the ethical risks associated with genetic engineering.The movie Gattaca released in 1997 is a bioethical text which explores the social implications of genetic-determinism and genetic engineering and gives light to the consequences which may occur from new eugenics. Gattaca raises the issue that many problems associated with the new eugenics, such as genetic favoritism, genetic prophecy, and the homogenization of society 1 is not due to the technology itself, but instead these problems arise only if society accepts the belief that individuals are no more than the sum of their genes. I n essence it challenges the notion of genetic determinism.Similarly Huxley within his dystopian novel, venturesome New World, explores the ramifications of a society that has rejected Mother Nature in all forms and instead is governed by controllers, who dictate how, when and on whom genetic manipulation should be applied, with the overall goal to achieve absolute stability of a toaliatrian state. In this world, Individualism becomes non-existent and a sense of human integrity is eliminated, resulting in complete totalitarian control, in essence a pessimistic accounting of the shape a scientifically planned community would take, of its sterility and human emptiness 4.One of the most crucial ethical concerns is the dilemma of genetic favoritism against those who are genetically un erectd. Genetic engineering in humans implies that we can create an elite race of human beings which are superior to the common man or control genetic engineering in such a way as to create groups of alte red beings each with predetermined roles in society. Arguably this gives rise to significant ethical concerns, especially in areas of reproduction where parents can alter the genetic makeup of an embryo before birth.While this is seen as an advantage in the scope of eliminating genes coding for certain diseases, it suggests a violation of humanitarian rights and discrimination between those who can afford the technology and those who cannot so that a large fraction of human beings will be the victims of the omissions and commissions of science because they lack the material wealth and the social power to control their own lives 1, as give tongue to by evolutionary geneticist Richard Lewontin. Arguably this will differentiate people in the matter of career advancement and social relationships 3.This is a prominent concept in Gattaca, as the protagonist despite being a qualified candidate for a job position is discriminated due to his unenhanced form, stating that in a world of gene tic determinism the best test score in the world wasnt going to matter unless I had the blood test to go with it 1. As well as this, genetic enhancement challenges the concept of virtue ethics. If we have the power to combine all desirable traits together to enhance and elevate ourselves aboveother individuals, is it morally permissible to do so and will this lead to great vanity and commercialism in mankind? Additionally how does this affect our relationship with others who either oppose the technology or cannot afford the luxury of such enhancement? Furthermore, genetic engineering in humans alludes to the development of new crystalise structure within society which will widen the gap between the enhanced and unenhanced even further, inquiring the right of all individuals to an equal quality of life.Discrimination of individuals has always been a universal predominant concern and significant measures are taken to nourish the rights and welfare of citizens in society. Modern so ciety in particular supports and appreciates the significance of egalitarianism. This has not been an easy venture for mankind as history shows us that previous section structures were difficult to dissolve and even today are not extinct.With genetic engineering and genetic discrimination however, the argument emerges that although we have made it illegal to discriminate people on the basis of race, worship and sex, by genetically engineering them we give rise to a new form of discrimination, one not so easily detectable, as Vincent in Gattaca states its illegal to discriminate on the basis of geneticsgenoism its calledbut no one takes the laws seriously 1.These concerns are mirrored in Aldous Huxleys gallant New World, where he demonstrates the stringent societal class order where Individuals are predetermined to be alpha, beta, gamma, delta or epsilons and are thus classified in the societal ladder as such. Each class has different genetic traits so to ensure they can carry out their predetermined role in society and are conditioned to sleep with their fate. Huxley presents such a blatant view of genetic discrimination to highlight the complete loss of individuals rights, free recalling and the ineffectiveness of those in power to carry out their duties to the public.The major ethical dilemma extends from the concept of utileism, in which certain individuals have taken it upon themselves to control what all aspects of life for the greater good of society. This abolishes all concepts of virtue ethics as in a state of totalitarianism, individuals are discriminated against before they are born and have a chance to prove their worth, as Huxley demonstrates with the lower classes of society, who through gene manipulation are genetically stunted to ensure they will eternally remain at the bottom rung of society.The prominence of genetic discrimination as one of the key ethical concerns in these texts highlights the fact that our societal problems are so univ ersal that regardless of how or in which way society changes, the ethical implications of classism will inherently be the same although inflicted in a new form. Therefore a mechanism to sustain egalitarianism in society and retain the rights and freedom of individuals must be developed before we allow genetic engineering to become a fixture in society, as although we may be advancing forward technologically, ethically we will be taking a step backwards.Additionally, genetic engineering in humans raises the profound ethical concern of losing ones individuality in a genetically altered world and by extension losing moral autonomy. Genetically altered individuals would see themselves as a product of the deliberate intervention of others, giving rise to the misconception of self integrity. This ethical issue causes raises concerns of homogenous societies, which would violate the engineers Code of Ethics to support and encourage diversity 8.This notion is explored extensively in Brave N ew World, which abolishes the importance of individualism and demonstrates the ways in which those who have access to gene altering technology can utilise it unethically for their own benefit. As a result we must question not only our self integrity but also who should be responsible for determine what traits can be modified. Here the ethical concern stems from the argument that those with the knowledge to implement the technology may reject the previous moral doctrines and create their own, based on their comprehension of moral relativism 5.Huxley supports the view that individuals of a utilitarian predisposition will govern the world believing it is done for the greater good of humanity. Additionally, from the perspective of rights ethics, individuals in this world are refused any opportunity to plan their own property, change their role, rank or employ in society. Or even live permanently with another person of their choice 4, thus rendering the rights of the individual non-exis tent.Additionally the government enforces strict utilitarian ideology, as it believes that stability can be achieved if people think and look the same 4 and in doing so, these control agents fail to uphold their duties to their citizens, demonstrating a complete lack of respect for human value and dignity. This ethical concern of losing ones autonomy and individualism is of paramount importance as different civilisations throughout history have struggled to obtain freedom and a sense of identity.The portrayal of these notions in the mentioned texts, demonstrate that there is no compromise for humanitys free will and sense of individuality, as this is seen as a basic humanitarian right. As a result, our support or rejection of human genetic engineering will focus on our interrogative on how this field will impose on our rights as human beings and free thinking individuals. Perhaps the most profound ethical concern regarding genetic engineering is the questioning of what it means to be human and if genetic engineering results in dehumanisation, destroying the concept of humanity as we know it?In a genetically altered world, do we define genetically engineered beings as human if they have no flaws? Such ethical questions challenge our perception of what makes us human and force us to examine whether there is a necessity in genetically altering ourselves if the advantages do not outweigh the possible consequences, as it can be argued that not every scientific advance automatically makes our lives more meaningful 6.Both Huxley and Niccol examine this profound ethical concern in their texts, providing the conclusion that although we may alter our genetic makeup, we cannot alter the primal, immaterial characteristics of human beings such as our emotional vulnerability. so emotional variability, self awareness, will power and human spirit are all subject to human autonomy and while these remain we do not lose our integrity. In essence it is a rejection of the gene determinism ideology as we do not define our individuality on the basis of genetic makeup, since there is no gene for the human spirit 1.In Gattaca, the essence of humanity is portrayed through the unenhanced Vincent, who overcomes his genetic heritage through shear motivation and will power, demonstrating that these qualities cannot be engineered, emerging instead from an individuals motivation when confronted with the challenge of a specific circumstance or environment. In this sense it is Vincents flaws which fuel his determination and lead to his net success, not his genes.This is contrasted against the genetically enhanced characters, who suffer form the burden of perfection, as Gattaca poses the ethical dilemma that the expectations put upon the genetically enhanced to live up to their genetics are almost as debilitating as the discrimination against the unenhanced 1. However the individual who has been engineered with no flaws, has nothing to overcome and no obvious need t o improve, thus lacking the traits of will power and motivation that Vincent possessed. This is identical to the genetically engineered characters of Bernard and Helmholtz in Brave New World.They are dissatisfied with the limitations their stable society imposes, despite undergoing full conditioning 6. These examples suggest that individual desires cannot be suppressed with social intervention and although genetic engineering may eliminate imperfections and flaws, it comes at price, which is that of emotional awareness and human spirit. Additionally, the most philosophical ethical concerns arise from a theoretical tryout of how genetic engineering may influence the evolutionary process in the future. Genetic manipulation can be seen as a mechanism to aid humanity in adapting to new environmental conditions.Therefore in terms of evolutionary progress, we must question where genetic engineering places us. Are we speeding up the process of evolution or are we simply providing a new f orm of natural selection, one which is better suited to our technologically advanced context? So that over time, humanity as we know it will become non-existent having made way for the superior genetically enhanced beings. In the future if genetic engineering became widespread in society, will survival be dependent upon the extent and type of our genetic enhancement and if so, who governs these moral absolutes?Although not practical, these are interesting ethical dilemmas to consider. Essentially, we are approaching a point in history where we have the technology and the expertise to alter our genetic makeup in ways which seemed unthinkable even a decennary ago 7. Genetic engineering provides many advantages to human life such as eradicating disease and eliminating undesirable traits, however it also raises serious bioethical concerns such as those examined in Gattaca and Brave New World.We cannot restrict the advancement of science rather we need to develop moral boundaries so tha t we can confess the value of science without devaluing those who it is intended to serve 2. Flaws in human genetic engineering cannot be undone and thus a serious examination of the possible ethical implications and consequences need to be determined by the scientist and engineers, so that this technology does not have a detrimental impact on future generation.List of References 1 Kirby, D 2000, The New Eugenics in Cinema Genetic Determinism and Gene Therapy in GATTACA, Science fiction Studies, accessed 3rd October 2013, 2 Gleghorn, M 2001, lay the Brakes on Human Genetic Engineering Are We focal ratio toward a Brave New World? Probe Ministries, accessed 1st October 2013 3 D, P 2012, Loss of Privacy and Sense of Self, Desperado Philosophy, accessed 19th October 20134 Gehlhaus, Jr R 1998, Brave New World The Cost of Stability, Soma Web, accessed 29th September 2013 5 Brave New World (1932), Literature & Film Search, assessed 12th October 2013, Bottom of F 6 Shakespeare, T 2000, B rave New World II, The Guardian, accessed 2nd October 2013 7 Epstein, R1999, Ethical Dangers of Genetic Engineering, Institute for World Religions & San Francisco State University, accessed 2nd October 2013 8 Our Code of Ethics, 2010, Engineers Australia, accessed 10th October 2013